20th century British literature presented ideologies and norms that encouraged a certain way of life. The literature and arts of the time challenged traditional values through new ways of thinking such as scientific inquiry, feminism, and cultural integration. These ideas can be categorized into two progressions – modernism  and postmodernism. These changes are made obvious in literature starting in 1914 through early 21st century – the postcolonial era. Post-colonialism is a cultural approach experimented with in the 1950’s by authors that studied the relations and interactions of people in formerly colonized countries. Famous Irish author, James Joyce, published a collection of short stories titled Dubliners, in 1914. The fifteen short stories were a depiction of middle-class Irish organized into three categories: childhood, youth, and adulthood. The values and norms of female and male interaction in this text progressed almost 100 years later in Zadie Smith’s award winning novel, White Teeth, exemplified new norms for genders in the digressing postcolonial British Empire. Literary modernism originated in the late 19th century through the early 20th century. This movement practiced new techniques that challenged traditional representation and new ways of thinking through writing. The language and literature analyzes various groups of people and cultures. Postmodern  literature developed in the 1960’s that practiced the use of fragmentation, grand narratives, and intertextuality. Of these three forms, Dubliners most obviously practices modernism, whereas White Teeth shows literary development through postmodernism style.///add another sentence in between this. Per an analysis of James Joyce’s’ Dubliners and Zadie Smith’s White Teeth, I argue that the development from modernism to postmodernism literary techniques revealed gender roles and societal norms on female and male interactions favoring a feminist rule in a masculine society.

            The main goal of modernism was to modify existing representation or narration. It aimed to show human subjectivity in a more authentic way. The stories of Dubliners were written between 1904-1906 during a period called “High Imperialism.” They were not published until 1914 around the start of the first world war. During this time, Ireland fought to be a self-governing country outside of the British Empire’s rule. Here, modernism starts to develop as a response to social changes of western societies, cultural, and political movements. The fifteen short stories in Dubliners display these modernist concepts as the stories progress. The selection of stories can be separated into childhood, youth, and adulthood. However, these techniques are not made obvious until youth and adulthood. Two of the texts, A Mother and The Dead, are examples of the cultural and political movements of this time displayed through the interaction of male and female interaction and power. These stories most clearly article the downfall of a male society and transition into a society of empowered women.

            A Mother is the __ short story in Dubliners making it part of the “youth” portion. In this short story, the mother’s daughter proves herself as a talented musician. The mother wishes to capitalize on her talents and hires a manager to help her achieve success. However, after the manager arranges shows for the daughter, he takes the money that she should have made and cons the family. The mother, naturally, shows aggression towards this con artist: “They thought they had only a girl to deal with and that, therefore they could ride roughshod over her. But she would show them their mistake. They wouldn’t have dared to have treated her like that if she had been a man. But she would see that her daughter got her rights: she wouldn’t be fooled”. (pg. 99). This  best shows the modernist technique that exposes cultural norms. The mother confirms that had she been a man, she and her daughter would not be conned. However, development of society is shown through the mother’s willingness to argue the managers tactics.

In an article published by Susan Mooney, she argues the presentation of masculinity in these texts that confirms the Irishs’ struggle for independence at this time. This political aspect motivated the modernist techniques in the stories. Mooney argues, “In Joyce's Dubliners, as well as in his subsequent prose works, Joyce ironically revises heroic conceptions of Irish masculinity from youth to middle and old age. Joyce's turn-of-the-century Irish men are characterized by their anxiety and interrupted or disconnected circuits of desire.” The manager has a desire for success. He is challenged by two generations of women – middle and old. By the end of the text, the manager succumbs to the women (?) proving the challenges of overcoming now empowered women.

Similarly, Joyce uses these techniques in the final text, The Dead. This story features Gabe, the only male character, surrounded by a cast of females of a variety of ages. He is a budding journalist from Dublin, married to a submissive wife Gretta. They attend a party at three of his aunt’s house – older women fulfilling a gender norm of hosting and cooking. Lily, a young housemaid, is also objectified in a patriarchy way when she is questioned about her singleness after they expect her to marry. In the beginning the reader sees the first male versus female conflict. On a dark and rainy night, Gabe advises her to wear her goulashes (cite) despite her distaste in them. However, she does comply. But as the story progresses, roles reverse. In a private exchange between Gretta and Gabe, she explains to him about her past, deceased lover – admitting that she is still in love with him. Gabe, in that moment of realization, feels the shame that Mooney argues in her article about male masculinity, anxiety, and shame. “Gabriel felt humiliated by the failure of his irony and by the evocation of this figure from the dead, a boy in the gasworks. While he had been full of memories of their secret life together….she had been comparing him in her mind with another. A shameful consciousness of his own person assailed him. He saw himself as a ludicrous figure, acting as a penny boy for his aunts, a nervous, well-meaning sentimentalist. (pp. 149). The reader experiences Gabe’s stream-of-consciousness thoughts with him – another experimental form of modernism – emphasizing the role reversal from a patriarch dominance to female empowerment.

Joyce’s bold use of modernist techniques further explains the cultural norms of Ireland in the early 20th century. Using a wide range of stories and characters, he starts his texts with a collection of childhood stories where norms are not challenged. The move to youth and middle age foreshadows the exchange of power by creating female leads that are powerful, not objectified, in a traditional way. He concludes his model of modernism in his final story, The Dead, through the interactions of a male and female relationship. In a society where women are expected to submit to their men, Gretta challenges the traditional norm and expresses her concerns. I argue that without these modernist traditions, the character Gabe would have taken this exchange as an opportunity to assert his male dominance over Gretta, not physically, but emotionally. Instead, Joyce humbly reverses traditional roles and portrays Gabe as a shamed character stripped of his masculinity, unable to please his wife. The stories in a Dubliners boldly challenge the norms of this time thus empowering women while simultaneously revealing the flaws in a patriarchy, creating a more egalitarian society.

Following literary modernism, came post-modernism. Similar to modernism, this literary type broadly covered the philosophy of art, architecture, literature, and criticism. Developed in the late 20th century, this concept differed from traditional modernism because of added features like failure of grand-narratives and experimentation with fragmentation. Postmodernist writers frequently use irony and parodies s to challenge the grand narratives.  Zadie Smith, author of White Teeth, used these techniques to reveal conflicts between genders due to traditional values and accepted societal norms.

      White Teeth was published in 2000 written by British author, Zadie Smith. The novel uses a variety of characters, cultures, and familial dynamics to show the issues of and the successes within gender role development. I will focus on the relationship between husband Samad Iqbal and his wife, Alsana Begum. Together they have identical twin boys, Millat and Magid, who have befriended a family friends’ daughter, Irie Jones. She strategically uses age differences and cultural identity to show gender norms within the same society but different generations.

An exchange between Samad and Alsana about her style and his tradition shows assertiveness that suggests masculinity and a response from Alsana that challenges that norm. “Look at you, look at the state of you! Look how fat you are!” He grabbed a piece of her, and then released it as if it would infect him. “Look how you dress. Running shoes and a sari? And what is that?”…you do not even know what you are, where you come from, we never see family anymore—I am ashamed to show you to them. Why did you go all the way to Bengal for a  wife, that’s what they ask. (chapter 8 para 155-157). Samad uses his identity crisis as an opportunity to shame his wife. As suggested in Mooney’s article, this is an example of Samad’s masculinity being compromised. (he defends himself as being more than a waiter). As Mooney suggests, I argue that his reaction is a product of personal shame and inflated anxiety. 

However, Samad’s  actions prompt a reaction from Alsana that shows female empowerment and a shifting of roles. Samad made the decision to send their one son, Magid, away to study but did not ask for her blessing. At this, she thinks, “Alsana had decided to stop speaking directly to her husband. Through the next eight years she would determine never to say yes to him, never to say no to him, but rather to force him to live like she did—never knowing, never being sure, holding Samad's sanity to ransom...” (9.19).

            From a different standpoint, Smith keeps the same traditional conflict, but changes the generation. Irie is the daughter of Samal’s best friend, Archie. Her relationship with the twins rollercoasters throughout the novel featuring conflict and romance. Although physically identical, their minds are fraternal. Magid (?) was sent to Bengladesh, Samal’s home country, to study. Whereas, Millat stayed in England. The boys are products of a mixed race and culture. Similar, Irie faces an identity crisis and feminine insecurities. She knows she does not look like the typical English woman. Her body is fuller, her hair is thicker, and her skin is darker. Millat shows her a different type of masculinity that has been adopted by that generation. Postcolonial.org article, “The text focuses on generational analyses of masculinity and changing social codes in order to insist that there is not always a solution to the problem of constituting one’s gendered and cultural identity. Smith challenges social constructions of masculinity by dissecting the notions of cultural belonging and nationality and, in particular, by analyzing the ways in which masculinity is ruptured and distorted (both in behavior and in practice) in the various shifting historical narratives of identity.” cite He expresses a gentler, reassuring, exchange that shows the progression of what is now societally accepetable of men. He says, “But you're different," Millat Iqbal would say to the martyr Irie Jones, "you're different. We go way back. We've got history. You're a real friend. They don't really mean anything to me." Irie liked to believe that. That they had history, that she was different in a good way. (11.31-32). Sociological studies have followed trends of masculinity in men. In the late 20th century (find a source on sociology or use my book) men were expected to display a level of “toughness” that didn’t involve crying or other forms of sensitivity for fear of being considered a “pussy.” (find proof). The article published by postcolonial.org confirms, “focuses on masculinity as a way of shifting attention to the possibilities of a masculine identity that diverts from and challenges traditional and historically dictated notions of “maleness.” (3). However, as society has progressed, and egalitarianism arises, men are being de-masculated in the sense that expression of their “feminine  side” is now encouraged and widely acceptable.

            The relationship between the twins and Irie has conflict, but also romance. Irie is an aspiring dentist with big dreams and goals – a notion made possible because of a developing egalitarian society. However, she becomes pregnant, unknowing who the father is because she has slept with both brothers. This challenges societal norms. From a sociological standpoint, an accepted gender norm is the promiscuity of men, but women are restricted to having a number or face “slut shaming.” As this dilemma arises, Irie thinks to herself, “what she didn’t know, and what she realized she may never know…was the identity of the father. No test on earth would tell her. …She could not know her body’s decision, what choice it had made, in the race to the gamete, between the saved and unsaved (19, para 143).  Scenarios such as Irie’s are normalized in the 21st century. Through scientific advancements, women can willingly choose to start a pregnancy and motherhood, independently. The visible aspect of Irie’s independent pregnancy is accepted. The intrinsic aspect – the identity crisis – while invisible to outsiders, shows strength in Irie’s femininity. An article published on postcolonial.org argues, “Smith purposefully creates strong, intelligent, and relatively unconflicted women in White Teeth as a reflection of societal changes…”(3). I disagree that Smith writes her female characters without conflict. It is because of the internal and external conflicts that Alsana and Irie face that one is able to see them express female empowerment: verbally, mentally, and physically.

Per an analysis of James Joyce’s’ Dubliners and Zadie Smith’s White Teeth, I argue that the development from modernism to postmodernism literary techniques revealed gender roles and societal norms on female and male interactions favoring a feminist rule in a masculine society. Dubliners uses specific instances to show conflict between male and female actions and thoughts. The mother and the manager conflict and response can be compared to Samad and Alsana. Each male exemplified a masculine assertion whereas the female characters responded with a confidence that challenged societal norms. Similarly, the relationship between Gabe and Gretta can be paralleled with Migad and Irie. There is a shift in masculine interactions between male and female characters. The male characters respond to the females in a way that confirms the deletion of the typical definition of “maleness” and transition into normalizing feminist tendencies in men. Both texts allow females to display intrinsic and extrinsic growth and a positive societal shift between culture, generations, and gender.

 

 

 

 

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Bibliography:

Men Negotiating Identity in Zadie Smith’s White Teeth. https://www.postcolonial.org/index.php/pct/article/download/929/863.

Mooney, Susan. “Interrupted Masculinity in Dubliners: Anxiety, Shame, and Shontological Ethics.” Joyce Studies Annual, 2017, pp. 220–255. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=sso&db=mzh&AN=2018580380&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

Sercan Hamza Bağlama, Sercan Hamza. “Zadie Smith’s White Teeth: The Interpellation of the Colonial Subject in Multicultural Britain.” Journal of Language, Literature and Culture, vol. 66, no. 2, Aug. 2019, pp. 77–90. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=sso&db=mzh&AN=201915874025&site=ehost-live&scope=site. (requested item – use in final draft).